The+Americas+on+the+Eve+of+Invasion

11.1 ESPIRIT Chart: The Aztecs Civilization: The Aztecs Time Period: 1300 - 1400  - Floating gardens called chinampas prevalent throughout city of Tenochtitlan  - The state controlled the use and distribution of food and redistributed tributes received from other subordinates (120,000 mantles of cotton cloth sent to Tenochtitlan each year) ||  - Members of the military gained rank and respect by capturing prisoners for sacrifice.  - Aztects started off as seven different clans, or //calpulli.//  These calpulli were lead by different family heads, but not all calpulli were equal, nor were all families.  - As the Aztec Empire expanded, a noble class emerged. Nobles controlled priesthood and military.  - Social mobility ✓  - Social classes were made clear by distinctions in clothing, uniforms, and even hairstyles.  - Serf-like class developed as nobles began to acquire private lands.  - Scribes, healers, and artisans were part of an intermediate class. (more important in major cities); merchants were also important in this intermediate class (pochteca class)  - Aimed to exert political domination and not necessarily direct administrative control ||  - Power struggles and political and military regionalism before the rise of the Aztecs resembled that of Europe  - By early 1400s, they were able to become an independent power and formed alliances with other tribes <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - City of Tenochtitlan founded in 1325, and became base of Aztec operations in the region ---> continued conquest of other territories, and demanded labor in addition to tribute <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Continued to be wary of local practices and customs <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - The Great Speaker, ruler of Tenochtitlan, wielded great influence in Aztec empire (held in almost God-like esteem); also assisted by a prime minister and a governing council || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - As many as 20 million people may have been subjected to Aztec rulers during zenith of Aztec power <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Aztecs continued to harshly subdue any kind of rebellions <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Rival group Tlaxcala, another independent city-state in Mesoamerica, maintained fierce opposition to the Aztecs || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Gods of rain, water, fire, corn, the sky, and the sun; Each god had at least 5 aspects. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - ‘Twas thought that gods needed sacrifice in the form of hearts and blood, origins of human sacrificial cult. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Gods grouped into three categories: gods of fertility and agriculture, gods of creation, and, most importantly gods of the cult of warfare and sacrifice (the most famous and revered God being Huitzilopochtli <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Built great stone temples in honor of the Gods || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Many Aztec paintings and art deal with the practice of human sacrifice, just like the Toltecs <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Aztecs = warring people; less emphasis placed on intellectual activity || ESPIRIT Chart done with Eddie Fisher
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">E || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Sedentary agriculture was the most important economic activity to the Aztecs
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">S || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Diets centered on corn sustained dense populations.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">P || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- The Aztecs rose to prominence after a power vacuum formed in absence of the Toltecs; by some accounts, the Aztecs were a nomadic warrior group that took control of the sedentary population that lived in and around Lake Texcoco in 1325
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">I || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Continued conquest of other Mexican city-states, demanded subjects for human sacrifice and tributes (most often food) from subjects
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">R || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Human sacrifice expanded into an enormous cult, supported by the highly ritualized military. The military provided prisoners of war as sacrifice. It remained unclear how much human sacrifice was legitimately done out of religious devotion and how much was done to intimidate Aztec population
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">I || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Aztecs drew upon the achievements of a past Mesoamerican group called the Toltecs (sedentary people with strong military ethic)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">T || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Technological barriers made it difficult to maintain the large population of central Mexico. (i.e. no plows - Aztec women often spent 30-40 hours a week preparing basic food on stone boards called metates) ||
 * Summary:** The Aztecs were a warring Mesoamerican group that rose to prominence after the decline of the Toltecs. They established their cultural and political center in Tenochtitlan in 1325 in the middle of Texcoco, and expanded outward through military conquest, sometimes forging alliances with other city-states. These subjugated states were expected to give the Aztecs some kind of tribute that usually came in the form of slave labor, subjects for ritual sacrifice, or food. The Aztecs drew heavily upon the achievements of past civilizations like the Toltecs, worshiping similar gods and having the same artistic tastes. One notable feature of their civilization was the practice of ritual sacrifice in the name of their one of their gods, Huitzilopitchli. They also had a political structure that was highly regionalized, but still under loose centralized authoritative control ("aimed to exert political domination and not necessarily direct administrative control").

11.2 ESPIRIT Chart: The Incas <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Civilization: The Incas <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Time Period: 1300 - 1400 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Incan men were expected to participate in mita (labor turns that fluctuated between harvesting crops and building projects for the state) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Most people were peasants farmers or herders (the ayllus of each community controlled the land) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Many women were expected to sew elaborate tapestries for the state as well <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Close cooperation between both men and women encouraged by Incas (like always, women still considered to be subordinate to men) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Yanas - social class of people removed from their ayllus to serve permanently as servants, artisans, or worked for the Inca or nobility <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Inca nobility - drawn from 10 royal ayllus; distinguished by dress and cutsom, <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - NO merchant class || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Empire ruled by an “inca,” who was almost considered a god; ruled from city of Cuzco, with related high priest <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Split Inheritance - political power is given to successors, while actual property and land is given to descendants and use to help pay tribute to the deceased ruler. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Provided roads, irrigation projects, and valuable goods to regional governments and local community (in return for these goods, people were expected to contribute labor power - idea of reciprocity) || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Encapsulated 9 to 13 million Native Americans of diverse backgrounds <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Incas intentionally spread the Quechua language to unite the empire linguistically || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Temple of the Sun in Cuzco was center of state religion (Sun god considered highest deity) <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Incas allowed for worship of other local gods if their gods were worshipped as well <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Mountains, stones, rivers, caves, tombs, and temples were considered holy shrines (huacas) || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Used a system of quipu (knotted strings) in order to record numerical information || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Made impressive advancements in metallurgy (with gold and silver), architecture, pottery, weaving, and engineering <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Number system based on decimal units of 10,000, 1,000, 100 and smaller numbers helped enormously in organizing government bureaucracy <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> - Irrigation, and state-sponsored water management helped to spur economy || ESPIRIT Chart done with Eddie Fisher
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">E || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Like the Aztecs, they relied heavily upon sedentary agriculture; complex irrigation systems helped them to grow crops ||
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">S || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Great state control and bureaucratic control. All over peoples of different cultures and languages.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">P || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Empire originated in 1350 around city of Cuzco; leader Pachcuti launched series of military alliances and campaigns (successors Topac Yupanqui and Huayna Capac continued in this regard)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">I || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Inca Empire spread across Colombia to Chile and eastward across Lake Titicaca and Bolivia to Northern Argentina (across 3,000 miles)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">R || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Cult of the Ancestors; Deceased rulers were mummified and sought after. They were even consulted in times of need; their tombs, which required constant maintenance, encouraged territorial expansion
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">I || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Syncretism - incorporated many aspects of previous Andean cultures but fused them together in new ways.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">T || <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- Built system of roads (2500 miles) connecting all parts of the empire with bridges and way stations called tambos (there were able 10,000 of these)
 * Summary:** The Incas, like the Aztecs, were a people who rose to prominence by drawing heavily from the past achievements of civilizations that existed prior to them. They also gained land through a series of conquests and expected tributes from their subjected peoples. However, they tried harder than the Aztecs to integrate their civilization, building a system of roads and tambos (way stations) 2,500 miles long and promoting the use of their language, Quechu. The Inca, or supreme leader (held in an almost godlike status), ruled from the city of Cuzco, the cultural and political epicenter of the Incas. Located in Cuzco was the Temple of the Sun, dedicated to the deity which the Incan people held in highest esteem. However, just prior to the arrival of the Incas in the 1500s, the Empire was subject to power struggles, involving political maneuvering and royal marriages.